One of my favorite features within Twisted — but also one of the least known — is LoopingCall.withCount, which can be used in applications where you have some real-time thing happening, which needs to keep happening at a smooth rate regardless of any concurrent activity or pauses in the main loop. Originally designed for playing audio samples from a softphone without introducing a desync delay over time, it can also be used to play animations while keeping track of their appropriate frame.

LoopingCall is all around a fun tool to build little game features with. I’ve built a quick little demo to showcase some discoveries I’ve made over a few years of small hobby projects (none of which are ready for an open-source release) over here: DrawSnek.

This little demo responds to 3 key-presses:

1. q quits. Always a useful thing for full-screen apps which don’t always play nice with C-c :).
2. s spawns an additional snek. Have fun, make many sneks.
3. h introduces a random “hiccup” of up to 1 full second so you can see what happens visually when the loop is overburdened or stuck.

Unfortunately a fully-functioning demo is a bit lengthy to go over line by line in a blog post, so I’ll just focus on a couple of important features for stutter- and tearing-resistant animation & drawing with PyGame & Twisted.

For starters, you’ll want to use a very recent prerelease of PyGame 2, which recently added support for vertical sync even without OpenGL mode; then, pass the vsync=1 argument to set_mode:

1
2
3
4
5

screen = pygame.display.set_mode(
    (640 * 2, 480 * 2),
    pygame.locals.SCALED | pygame.locals.FULLSCREEN,
    vsync=1
)

To allow for as much wall-clock time as possible to handle non-drawing work, such as AI and input handling, I also use this trick:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

def drawScene():
    screen.fill((0, 0, 0))
    for drawable in self.drawables:
        drawable.draw(screen)
    return deferToThread(pygame.display.flip)

LoopingCall(drawScene).start(1 / 62.0)

By deferring pygame.display.flip to a thread¹, the main loop can continue processing AI timers, animation, network input, and user input while blocking and waiting for the vertical blank. Since the time-to-vblank can easily be up to 1/120th of a second, this is a significant amount of time! We know that the draw won’t overlap with flip, because LoopingCall respects Deferreds returned from its callable and won’t re-invoke you until the Deferred fires.

Drawing doesn’t use withCount, because it just needs to repeat about once every refresh interval (on most displays, about 1/60th of a second); the vblank timing is what makes sure it lines up.

However, animation looks like this:

1
2
3

def animate(self, frameCount):
    self.index += frameCount
    self.index %= len(self.images)

We move the index forward by however many frames it’s been, then be sure it wraps around by modding it by the number of frames.

Similarly, the core² of movement looks like this:

1
2
3

def move(self, frameCount):
    self.sprite.x += frameCount * self.dx
    self.sprite.y += frameCount * self.dy

Rather than moving based on the number of times we’ve been called, which can result in slowed-down movement when the framerate isn’t keeping up, we jump forward by however many frames we should have been called at this point in time.

One of these days, maybe I’ll make an actual game, but in the meanwhile I hope you all enjoy playing with these fun little basic techniques for using Twisted in your game engine.

One of the wonderful things about Python is the ease with which you can start writing a script - just drop some code into a .py file, and run python my_file.py. Similarly it’s easy to get started with modularity: split my_file.py into my_app.py and my_lib.py, and you can import my_lib from my_app.py and start organizing your code into modules.

However, the details of the machinery that makes this work have some surprising, and sometimes very security-critical consequences: the more convenient it is for you to execute code from different locations, the more opportunities an attacker has to execute it as well...

Python needs a safe space to load code from

Here are three critical assumptions embedded in Python’s security model:

1. Every entry on sys.path is assumed to be a secure location from which it is safe to execute arbitrary code.
2. The directory where the “main script” is located is always on sys.path.
3. When invoking python directly, the current directory is treated as the “main script” location, even when passing the -c or -m options.

If you’re running a Python application that’s been installed properly on your computer, the only location outside of your Python install or virtualenv that will be automatically added to your sys.path (by default) is the location where the main executable, or script, is installed.

For example, if you have pip installed in /usr/bin, and you run /usr/bin/pip, then only /usr/bin will be added to sys.path by this feature. Anything that can write files to that /usr/bin can already make you, or your system, run stuff, so it’s a pretty safe place. (Consider what would happen if your ls executable got replaced with something nasty.)

However, one emerging convention is to prefer calling /path/to/python -m pip in order to avoid the complexities of setting up $PATH properly, and to avoid dealing with divergent documentation of how scripts are installed on Windows (usually as .exe files these days, rather than .py files).

This is fine — as long as you trust that you’re the only one putting files into the places you can import from — including your working directory.

Your “Downloads” folder isn’t safe

As the category of attacks with the name “DLL Planting” indicates, there are many ways that browsers (and sometimes other software) can be tricked into putting files with arbitrary filenames into the Downloads folder, without user interaction.

Browsers are starting to take this class of vulnerability more seriously, and adding various mitigations to avoid allowing sites to surreptitiously drop files in your downloads folder when you visit them.¹

Even with mitigations though, it will be hard to stamp this out entirely: for example, the Content-Disposition HTTP header’s filename* parameter exists entirely to allow the the site to choose the filename that it downloads to.

Composing the attack

You’ve made a habit of python -m pip to install stuff. You download a Python package from a totally trustworthy website that, for whatever reason, has a Python wheel by direct download instead of on PyPI. Maybe it’s internal, maybe it’s a pre-release; whatever. So you download totally-legit-package.whl, and then:

1
2

~$ cd Downloads
~/Downloads$ python -m pip install ./totally-legit-package.whl

This seems like a reasonable thing to do, but unbeknownst to you, two weeks ago, a completely different site you visited had some XSS JavaScript on it that downloaded a pip.py with some malware in it into your downloads folder.

Boom.

Demonstrating it

Here’s a quick demonstration of the attack:

1
2
3
4
5

~$ mkdir attacker_dir
~$ cd attacker_dir
~/attacker_dir$ echo 'print("lol ur pwnt")' > pip.py
~/attacker_dir$ python -m pip install requests
lol ur pwnt

PYTHONPATH surprises

Just a few paragraphs ago, I said:

If you’re running a Python application that’s been installed properly on your computer, the only location outside of your Python install or virtualenv that will be automatically added to your sys.path (by default) is the location where the main executable, or script, is installed.

So what is that parenthetical “by default” doing there? What other directories might be added?

Anything entries on your $PYTHONPATH environment variable. You wouldn’t put your current directory on $PYTHONPATH, would you?

Unfortunately, there’s one common way that you might have done so by accident.

Let’s simulate a “vulnerable” Python application:

1
2
3
4
5

# tool.py
try:
    import optional_extra
except ImportError:
    print("extra not found, that's fine")

Make 2 directories: install_dir and attacker_dir. Drop this in install_dir. Then, cd attacker_dir and put our sophisticated malware there, under the name used by tool.py:

1
2

# optional_extra.py
print("lol ur pwnt")

Finally, let’s run it:

1
2

~/attacker_dir$ python ../install_dir/tool.py
extra not found, that's fine

So far, so good.

But, here’s the common mistake. Most places that still recommend PYTHONPATH recommend adding things to it like so:

1

export PYTHONPATH="/new/useful/stuff:$PYTHONPATH";

Intuitively, this makes sense; if you’re adding project X to your $PYTHONPATH, maybe project Y had already added something, maybe not; you never want to blow it away and replace what other parts of your shell startup might have done with it, especially if you’re writing documentation that lots of different people will use.

But this idiom has a critical flaw: the first time it’s invoked, if $PYTHONPATH was previously either empty or un-set, this then includes an empty string, which resolves to the current directory. Let’s try it:

1
2
3

~/attacker_dir$ export PYTHONPATH="/a/perfectly/safe/place:$PYTHONPATH";
~/attacker_dir$ python ../install_dir/tool.py
lol ur pwnt

Oh no! Well, just to be safe, let’s empty out $PYTHONPATH and try it again:

1
2
3

~/attacker_dir$ export PYTHONPATH="";
~/attacker_dir$ python ../install_dir/tool.py
lol ur pwnt

Still not safe!

What’s happening here is that if PYTHONPATH is empty, that is not the same thing as it being unset. From within Python, this is the difference between os.environ.get("PYTHONPATH") == "" and os.environ.get("PYTHONPATH") == None.

If you want to be sure you’ve cleared $PYTHONPATH from a shell (or somewhere in a shell startup), you need to use the unset command:

1
2

~/attacker_dir$ python ../install_dir/tool.py
extra not found, that's fine

Setting PYTHONPATH used to be the most common way to set up a Python development environment; hopefully it’s mostly fallen out of favor, with virtualenvs serving this need better. If you’ve got an old shell configuration that still sets a $PYTHONPATH that you don’t need any more, this is a good opportunity to go ahead and delete it.

However, if you do need an idiom for “appending to” PYTHONPATH in a shell startup, use this technique:

1
2

export PYTHONPATH="${PYTHONPATH:+${PYTHONPATH}:}new_entry_1"
export PYTHONPATH="${PYTHONPATH:+${PYTHONPATH}:}new_entry_2"

In both bash and zsh, this results in

1
2

$ echo "${PYTHONPATH}"
new_entry_1:new_entry_2

with no extra colons or blank entries on your $PYTHONPATH variable now.

Finally: if you’re still using $PYTHONPATH, be sure to always use absolute paths!

Related risks

There are a bunch of variant unsafe behaviors related to inspecting files in your Downloads folder by doing anything interactive with Python. Other risky activities:

• Running python ~/Downloads/anything.py (even if anything.py is itself safe) from anywhere - as it will add your downloads folder to sys.path by virtue of anything.py’s location.
• Jupyter Notebook puts the directory that the notebook is in onto sys.path, just like Python puts the script directory there. So jupyter notebook ~/Downloads/anything.ipynb is just as dangerous as python ~/Downloads/anything.py.

Get those scripts and notebooks out of your downloads folder before you run ’em!

But cd Downloads and then doing anything interactive remains a problem too:

• Running a python -c command that includes an import statement while in your ~/Downloads folder
• Running python interactively and importing anything while in your ~/Downloads folder

Remember that ~/Downloads/ isn’t special; it’s just one place where unexpected files with attacker-chosen filenames might sneak in. Be on the lookout for other locations where this is true. For example, if you’re administering a server where the public can upload files, make extra sure that neither your application nor any administrator who might run python ever does cd public_uploads.

Maybe consider changing the code that handles uploads to mangle file names to put a .uploaded at the end, avoiding the risk of a .py file getting uploaded and executed accidentally.

Mitigations

If you have tools written in Python that you want to use while in your downloads folder, make a habit of preferring typing the path to the script (/path/to/venv/bin/pip) rather than the module (/path/to/venv/bin/python -m pip).

In general, just avoid ever having ~/Downloads as your current working directory, and move any software you want to use to a more appropriate location before launching it.

It’s important to understand where Python gets the code that it’s going to be executing. Giving someone the ability to execute even one line of arbitrary Python is equivalent to giving them full control over your computer!

Why I wrote this article

When writing a “tips and tricks” article like this about security, it’s very easy to imply that I, the author, am very clever for knowing this weird bunch of trivia, and the only way for you, the reader, to stay safe, is to memorize a huge pile of equally esoteric stuff and constantly be thinking about it. Indeed, a previous draft of this post inadvertently did just that. But that’s a really terrible idea and not one that I want to have any part in propagating.

So if I’m not trying to say that, then why post about it? I’ll explain.

Over many years of using Python, I’ve infrequently, but regularly, seen users confused about the locations that Python loads code from. One variety of this confusion is when people put their first program that uses Twisted into a file called twisted.py. That shadows the import of the library, breaking everything. Another manifestation of this confusion is a slow trickle of confused security reports where a researcher drops a module into a location where Python is documented to load code from — like the current directory in the scenarios described above — and then load it, thinking that this reflects an exploit because it’s executing arbitrary code.

Any confusion like this — even if the system in question is “behaving as intended”, and can’t readily be changed — is a vulnerability that an attacker can exploit.

System administrators and developers are high-value targets in the world of cybercrime. If you hack a user, you get that user’s data; but if you hack an admin or a dev, and you do it right, you could get access to thousands of users whose systems are under the administrator’s control or even millions of users who use the developers’ software.

Therefore, while “just be more careful all the time” is not a sustainable recipe for safety, to some extent, those of us acting on our users’ behalf do have a greater obligation to be more careful. At least, we should be informed about the behavior of our tools. Developer tools, like Python, are inevitably power tools which may require more care and precision than the average application.

Nothing I’ve described above is a “bug” or an “exploit”, exactly; I don’t think that the developers of Python or Jupyter have done anything wrong; the system works the way it’s designed and the way it’s designed makes sense. I personally do not have any great ideas for how things could be changed without removing a ton of power from Python.

One of my favorite safety inventions is the SawStop. Nothing was wrong with the way table saws worked before its invention; they were extremely dangerous tools that performed an important industrial function. A lot of very useful and important things were made with table saws. Yet, it was also true that table saws were responsible for a disproportionate share of wood-shop accidents, and, in particular, lost fingers. Despite plenty of care taken by experienced and safety-conscious carpenters, the SawStop still saves many fingers every year.

So by highlighting this potential danger I also hope to provoke some thinking among some enterprising security engineers out there. What might be the SawStop of arbitrary code execution for interactive interpreters? What invention might be able to prevent some of the scenarios I describe below without significantly diminishing the power of tools like Python?

Stay safe out there, friends.

Acknowledgments

Thanks very much to Paul Ganssle, Nathaniel J. Smith, Itamar Turner-Trauring and Nelson Elhage for substantial feedback on earlier drafts of this post.

Any errors remain my own.

Get it?
Quack quack quack quack
Quack quack quack quack

Weird Al Yancovic,
“I Want A New Duck”

Mypy makes most things better

Mypy is a static type checker for Python. If you’re not already familiar, you should check it out; it’s rapidly becoming a standard for Python projects. All the cool kids are doing it. With Mypy, you get all the benefits of high-level dynamic typing for rapid experimentation, and all the benefits of rigorous type checking to complement your tests and improve reliability.¹ The best of both worlds!

Mypy can change how you write Python code. In most cases, this is for the better. For example, I have opined on numerous occasions about how bad None is. But this can significantly change with Mypy. Now, when you return None, you can say -> Optional[str] and rest assured that all your callers will be quickly, statically checked for places where they might encounter an AttributeError on that None, which makes this a more appealing option than risking raising a runtime exception (which Mypy can’t check).

But sometimes, things can get worse

But in some cases, as you add type annotations, they can make your code more brittle, especially if you annotate with the most initially obvious types. Which is to say, you define some custom classes, and then say that the parameters to and return values from your functions and methods are simply instances of those classes you just defined.

Most Mypy tutorials give you a bunch of examples with str, int, List[int], maybe an Optional[float] or two, and then leave you to your own devices when it comes to defining your own classes; yet, huge amounts of real-world applications are custom classes.

So if you’re new to Mypy, particularly if you’re applying it to a large existing codebase, it’s quite natural to write a little code like this:

1
2
3
4
5
6

from dataclasses import dataclass
@dataclass
class Duck:
    quiet: bool = False
    def quack(self) -> None:
        print("Quack." if self.quiet else "QUACK!")

and then, later, write some code like this:

1
2
3
4

def duck_war(aggressor: Duck, defender: Duck) -> None:
    aggressor.quack()
    defender.quack()
    print("The only winning move is not to play.")

In untyped, pre-Mypy python, in addition to being a poignant message about the futility of escalating violence, duck_war is a very flexible function, regardless of where it’s defined. It can take anything with a quack() method.

But, while the strictness of the Mypy type-check here brings a level of safety — no None accidentally masquerading as a Duck here — it also adds a level of brittleness. Tests which use carefully-constructed fakes will now fail to type check, because duck_war technically insists upon only precisely instances of Duck and nothing else.

A few sub-optimal answers to this question

So when you want something else that has slightly different behavior — when you want a new Duck², so to speak — what do you do?

There are a couple of anti-patterns you might arrive at to work around this as you begin your Mypy journey:

1. add # type: ignore comments to all your tests, or remove their type signatures so they don’t get type checked. This solution throws the baby out with the bath water, as it eliminates any safety that any of these callers experience.
2. add calls to cast(Duck, ...) around any things which you know are “enough like” a Duck for your purposes. This is much more fine-grained and targeted (and can be a great hack for working with libraries who provide type stubs which are too specific) but this also trades off a bit too much safety, since nothing at the point of the cast verifies anything unless you build your own ad-hoc system to do so.
3. subclassing Duck. This can also be expedient, and not too bad if you have to; Mypy removes some of the sharpest edges from Python inheritance, providing some guard rails around overriding methods, but it remains a bad idea for all the usual reasons.

The good answer: typing.Protocol

Mypy has a feature, typing.Protocol , that provides a straightforward way to describe any object that has a quack() method.

You can do this like so:

1
2
3
4
5

from typing import Protocol

class Ducky(Protocol):
    def quack(self) -> None:
        "Quack."

Now, with only a small modification to its signature — while leaving the implementation the same — duck_war can now support anything sufficiently duck-like:

1
2

def duck_war(aggressor: Ducky, defender: Ducky) -> None:
    ...

In addition to making it possible for other code — for example, a unit test — to pass its own implementation of Ducky into duck_war without subclassing or tricking the type checker, this change also improves the safety of duck_war’s implementation itself. Previously, when it took a Duck, it would have been equally valid for duck_war to access the .quiet attribute of Duck as it would have been to access .quack, even though .quiet is ostensibly an internal implementation detail.

Now, we could add an underscore prefix to quiet to make it “private”, but the type checker will still happily let you access it. So a Protocol allows you to clearly reveal your intention about what types you expect your arguments to be.

Why isn’t everything like this?

Unfortunately, typing.Protocol began its life as typing_extensions.Protocol: a custom extended feature of the type system that wasn’t present in Mypy initially, and isn’t in the standard library until Python 3.8. Built-in types like Iterable and Sequence are type-checked as if they’re Protocols by being slightly special within Mypy, but it’s not clear to the casual user how this is happening.

However, other types, like io.TextIO, don’t quite behave this way, and some early-adopter projects for Mypy have types that are either too strict or too permissive because they predated this.

So I really wanted to write this post to highlight the Protocol style of describing types and encourage folks to use it.

In conclusion

The concept I’ve described above is not new in the world of type theory.

The way that typing works in Mypy with most types — builtins, custom classes, and abstract base classes — is known as nominal typing. Nominal as in “based on names”; if the object you have directly references the name of the type it’s being compared to, by being an instance of it, then it matches.

In other words: if it’s named “Duck”, it’s a duck. There are some advantages to nominal typing³, but this brittleness is not very Pythonic!

In contrast, the type of type-checking accomplished by Protocol is known as structural typing.⁴ Whether the caller matches a Protocol depends on the structure of your object — in other words, what methods and attributes it has.

In even other-er words - if it .quack()s like a duck, it is a duck.

If you’re just starting to use Mypy — particularly if you’re building a library that exports types that users are expected to implement — consider using Protocol to describe those types. With Protocol, while you get much-improved safety from type-checking, you don’t lose the wonderful flexibility and easy testability that duck typing has always given you in Python.

There should be one — and preferably only one — obvious way to do it.

Tim Peters, “The Zen of Python”

Moshe wrote a blog post a couple of days ago which neatly constructs a wonderful little coding example from a scene in a movie. And, as we know from the Zen of Python quote, there should only be one obvious way to do something in Python. So my initial reaction to his post was of course to do it differently — to replace an __init__ method with the new @dataclasses.dataclass decorator.

But as I thought about the code example more, I realized there are a number of things beyond just dataclasses that make the difference between “toy”, example-quality Python, and what you’d do in a modern, professional, production codebase today.

So let’s do everything the second, not-obvious way!

There’s more than one way to do it

Larry Wall, “The Other Zen of Python”

Getting started: the __future__ is now

We will want to use type annotations. But, the Guard and his friend are very self-referential, and will have lots of annotations that reference things that come later in the file. So we’ll want to take advantage of a future feature of Python, which is to say, Postponed Evaluation of Annotations. In addition to the benefit of slightly improving our import time, it’ll let us use the nice type annotation syntax without any ugly quoting, even when we need to make forward references.

So, to begin:

1

from __future__ import annotations

Doors: safe sets of constants

Next, let’s tackle the concept of “doors”. We don’t need to gold-plate this with a full blown Door class with instances and methods - doors don’t have any behavior or state in this example, and we don’t need to add it. But, we still wouldn’t want anyone using using this library to mix up a door or accidentally plunge to their doom by accidentally passing "certian death" when they meant certain. So a Door clearly needs a type of its own, which is to say, an Enum:

1
2
3
4
5

from enum import Enum

class Door(Enum):
    certain_death = "certain death"
    castle = "castle"

Questions: describing type interfaces

Next up, what is a “question”? Guards expect a very specific sort of value as their question argument and we if we’re using type annotations, we should specify what it is. We want a Question type that defines arguments for each part of the universe of knowledge that these guards understand. This includes who they are themselves, who the set of both guards are, and what the doors are.

We can specify it like so:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

from typing import Protocol, Sequence

class Question(Protocol):
    def __call__(
        self, guard: Guard, guards: Sequence[Guard], doors: Sequence[Door]
    ) -> bool:
        ...

The most flexible way to define a type of thing you can call using mypy and typing is to define a Protocol with a __call__ method and nothing else¹. We could also describe this type as Question = Callable[[Guard, Sequence[Guard], Door], bool] instead, but as you may be able to infer, that doesn’t let you easily specify names of arguments, or keyword-only or positional-only arguments, or required default values. So Protocol-with-__call__ it is.

At this point, we also get to consider; does the questioner need the ability to change the collection of doors they’re passed? Probably not; they’re just asking questions, not giving commands. So they should receive an immutable version, which means we need to import Sequence from the typing module and not List, and use that for both guards and doors argument types.

Guards and questions: annotating existing logic with types

Next up, what does Guard look like now? Aside from adding some type annotations — and using our shiny new Door and Question types — it looks substantially similar to Moshe’s version:

 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
 7
 8
 9
10
11
12
13

from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass
class Guard:
    _truth_teller: bool
    _guards: Sequence[Guard]
    _doors: Sequence[Door]

    def ask(self, question: Question) -> bool:
        answer = question(self, self._guards, self._doors)
        if not self._truth_teller:
            answer = not answer
        return answer

Similarly, the question that we want to ask looks quite similar, with the addition of:

1. type annotations for both the “outer” and the “inner” question, and
2. using Door.castle for our comparison rather than the string "castle"
3. replacing List with Sequence, as discussed above, since the guards in this puzzle also have no power to change their environment, only to answer questions.
4. using the [var] = value syntax for destructuring bind, rather than the more subtle var, = value form

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

def question(guard: Guard, guards: Sequence[Guard], doors: Sequence[Door]) -> bool:
    [other_guard] = (candidate for candidate in guards if candidate != guard)

    def other_question(
        guard: Guard, guards: Sequence[Guard], doors: Sequence[Door]
    ) -> bool:
        return doors[0] == Door.castle

    return other_guard.ask(other_question)

Eliminating global state: building the guard post

Next up, how shall we initialize this collection of guards? Setting a couple of global variables is never good style, so let’s encapsulate this within a function:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

from typing import List

def make_guard_post() -> Sequence[Guard]:
    doors = list(Door)
    guards: List[Guard] = []
    guards[:] = [Guard(True, guards, doors), Guard(False, guards, doors)]
    return guards

Defining the main point

And finally, how shall we actually have this execute? First, let’s put this in a function, so that it can be called by things other than running the script directly; for example, if we want to use entry_points to expose this as a script. Then, let's put it in a "__main__" block, and not just execute it at module scope.

Secondly, rather than inspecting the output of each one at a time, let’s use the all function to express that the interesting thing is that all of the guards will answer the question in the affirmative:

1
2
3
4
5
6

def main() -> None:
    print(all(each.ask(question) for each in make_guard_post()))


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

Appendix: the full code

To sum up, here’s the full version:

 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
 7
 8
 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55

from __future__ import annotations
from dataclasses import dataclass
from typing import List, Protocol, Sequence
from enum import Enum


class Door(Enum):
    certain_death = "certain death"
    castle = "castle"


class Question(Protocol):
    def __call__(
        self, guard: Guard, guards: Sequence[Guard], doors: Sequence[Door]
    ) -> bool:
        ...


@dataclass
class Guard:
    _truth_teller: bool
    _guards: Sequence[Guard]
    _doors: Sequence[Door]

    def ask(self, question: Question) -> bool:
        answer = question(self, self._guards, self._doors)
        if not self._truth_teller:
            answer = not answer
        return answer


def question(guard: Guard, guards: Sequence[Guard], doors: Sequence[Door]) -> bool:
    [other_guard] = (candidate for candidate in guards if candidate != guard)

    def other_question(
        guard: Guard, guards: Sequence[Guard], doors: Sequence[Door]
    ) -> bool:
        return doors[0] == Door.castle

    return other_guard.ask(other_question)


def make_guard_post() -> Sequence[Guard]:
    doors = list(Door)
    guards: List[Guard] = []
    guards[:] = [Guard(True, guards, doors), Guard(False, guards, doors)]
    return guards


def main() -> None:
    print(all(each.ask(question) for each in make_guard_post()))


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

Acknowledgments

I’d like to thank Moshe Zadka for the post that inspired this, as well as Nelson Elhage, Jonathan Lange, Ben Bangert and Alex Gaynor for giving feedback on drafts of this post.

Prompted by Amber Brown’s presentation at the Python Language Summit last month, Christian Heimes has followed up on his own earlier work on slimming down the Python standard library, and created a proper Python Enhancement Proposal PEP 594 for removing obviously obsolete and unmaintained detritus from the standard library.

PEP 594 is great news for Python, and in particular for the maintainers of its standard library, who can now address a reduced surface area. A brief trip through the PEP’s rogues gallery of modules to deprecate or remove¹ is illuminating. The python standard library contains plenty of useful modules, but it also hides a veritable necropolis of code, a towering monument to obsolescence, threatening to topple over on its maintainers at any point.

However, I believe the PEP may be approaching the problem from the wrong direction. Currently, the standard library is maintained in tandem with, and by the maintainers of, the CPython python runtime. Large portions of it are simply included in the hope that it might be useful to somebody. In the aforementioned PEP, you can see this logic at work in defense of the colorsys module: why not remove it? “The module is useful to convert CSS colors between coordinate systems. [It] does not impose maintenance overhead on core development.”

There was a time when Internet access was scarce, and maybe it was helpful to pre-load Python with lots of stuff so it could be pre-packaged with the Python binaries on the CD-ROM when you first started learning.

Today, however, the modules you need to convert colors between coordinate systems are only a pip install away. The bigger core interpreter is just more to download before you can get started.

Why Didn’t You Review My PR?

So let’s examine that claim: does a tiny module like colorsys “impose maintenance overhead on core development”?

The core maintainers have enough going on just trying to maintain the huge and ancient C codebase that is CPython itself. As Mariatta put it in her North Bay Python keynote, the most common question that core developers get is “Why haven’t you looked at my PR?” And the answer? It’s easier to not look at PRs when you don’t care about them. This from a talk about what it means to be a core developer!

One might ask, whether Twisted has the same problem. Twisted is a big collection of loosely-connected modules too; a sort of standard library for networking. Are clients and servers for SSH, IMAP, HTTP, TLS, et. al. all a bit much to try to cram into one package?

I’m compelled to reply: yes. Twisted is monolithic because it dates back to a similar historical period as CPython, where installing stuff was really complicated. So I am both sympathetic and empathetic towards CPython’s plight.

At some point, each sub-project within Twisted should ideally become a separate project with its own repository, CI, website, and of course its own more focused maintainers. We’ve been slowly splitting out projects already, where we can find a natural boundary. Some things that started in Twisted like constantly and incremental have been split out; deferred and filepath are in the process of getting that treatment as well. Other projects absorbed into the org continue to live separately, like klein and treq. As we figure out how to reduce the overhead of setting up and maintaining the CI and release infrastructure for each of them, we’ll do more of this.

But is our monolithic nature the most pressing problem, or even a serious problem, for the project? Let’s quantify it.

As of this writing, Twisted has 5 outstanding un-reviewed pull requests in our review queue. The median time a ticket spends in review is roughly four and a half days.² The oldest ticket in our queue dates from April 22, which means it’s been less than 2 months since our oldest un-reviewed PR was submitted.

It’s always a struggle to find enough maintainers and enough time to respond to pull requests. Subjectively, it does sometimes feel like “Why won’t you review my pull request?” is a question we do still get all too often. We aren’t always doing this well, but all in all, we’re managing; the queue hovers between 0 at its lowest and 25 or so during a bad month.

By comparison to those numbers, how is core CPython doing?

Looking at CPython’s keyword-based review queue queue, we can see that there are 429 tickets currently awaiting review. The oldest PR awaiting review hasn’t been touched since February 2, 2018, which is almost 500 days old.

How many are interpreter issues and how many are stdlib issues? Clearly review latency is a problem, but would removing the stdlib even help?

For a quick and highly unscientific estimate, I scanned the first (oldest) page of PRs in the query above. By my subjective assessment, on this page of 25 PRs, 14 were about the standard library, 10 were about the core language or interpreter code; one was a minor documentation issue that didn’t really apply to either. If I can hazard a very rough estimate based on this proportion, somewhere around half of the unreviewed PRs might be in standard library code.

So the first reason the CPython core team needs to stop maintaining the standard library because they literally don’t have the capacity to maintain the standard library. Or to put it differently: they aren’t maintaining it, and what remains is to admit that and start splitting it out.

It’s true that none of the open PRs on CPython are in colorsys³. It does not, in fact, impose maintenance overhead on core development. Core development imposes maintenance overhead on it. If I wanted to update the colorsys module to be more modern - perhaps to have a Color object rather than a collection of free functions, perhaps to support integer color models - I’d likely have to wait 500 days, or more, for a review.

As a result, code in the standard library is harder to change, which means its users are less motivated to contribute to it. CPython’s unusually infrequent releases also slow down the development of library code and decrease the usefulness of feedback from users. It’s no accident that almost all of the modules in the standard library have actively maintained alternatives outside of it: it’s not a failure on the part of the stdlib’s maintainers. The whole process is set up to produce stagnation in all but the most frequently used parts of the stdlib, and that’s exactly what it does.

New Environments, New Requirements

Perhaps even more importantly is that bundling together CPython with the definition of the standard library privileges CPython itself, and the use-cases that it supports, above every other implementation of the language.

Podcast after podcast after podcast after keynote tells us that in order to keep succeeding and expanding, Python needs to grow into new areas: particularly web frontends, but also mobile clients, embedded systems, and console games.

These environments require one or both of:

• a completely different runtime, such as Brython, or MicroPython
• a modified, stripped down version of the standard library, which elides most of it.

In all of these cases, determining which modules have been removed from the standard library is a sticking point. They have to be discovered by a process of trial and error; notably, a process completely different from the standard process for determining dependencies within a Python application. There’s no install_requires declaration you can put in your setup.py that indicates that your library uses a stdlib module that your target Python runtime might leave out due to space constraints.

You can even have this problem even if all you ever use is the standard python on your Linux installation. Even server- and desktop-class Linux distributions have the same need for a more minimal core Python package, and so they already chop up the standard library somewhat arbitrarily. This can break the expectations of many python codebases, and result in bugs where even pip install won’t work.

Take It All Out

How about the suggestion that we should do only a little a day? Although it sounds convincing, don’t be fooled. The reason you never seem to finish is precisely because you tidy a little at a time. [...] The ultimate secret of success is this: If you tidy up in one shot, rather than little by little, you can dramatically change your mind-set.

Kondō, Marie.
“The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up”
(p. 15-16)

While incremental slimming of the standard library is a step in the right direction, incremental change can only get us so far. As Marie Kondō says, when you really want to tidy up, the first step is to take everything out so that you can really see everything, and put back only what you need.

It’s time to thank those modules which do not spark joy and send them on their way.

We need a “kernel” version of Python that contains only the most absolutely minimal library, so that all implementations can agree on a core baseline that gives you a “python”, and applications, even those that want to run on web browsers or microcontrollers, can simply state their additional requirements in terms of requirements.txt.

Now, there are some business environments where adding things to your requirements.txt is a fraught, bureaucratic process, and in those places, a large standard library might seem appealing. But “standard library” is a purely arbitrary boundary that the procurement processes in such places have drawn, and an equally arbitrary line may be easily drawn around a binary distribution.

So it may indeed be useful for some CPython binary distributions — perhaps even the official ones — to still ship with a broader selection of modules from PyPI. Even for the average user, in order to use it for development, at the very least, you’d need enough stdlib stuff that pip can bootstrap itself, to install the other modules you need!

It’s already the case, today, that pip is distributed with Python, but isn’t maintained in the CPython repository. What the default Python binary installer ships with is already a separate question from what is developed in the CPython repo, or what ships in the individual source tarball for the interpreter.

In order to use Linux, you need bootable media with a huge array of additional programs. That doesn’t mean the Linux kernel itself is in one giant repository, where the hundreds of applications you need for a functioning Linux server are all maintained by one team. The Linux kernel project is immensely valuable, but functioning operating systems which use it are built from the combination of the Linux kernel and a wide variety of separately maintained libraries and programs.

Conclusion

The “batteries included” philosophy was a great fit for the time when it was created: a booster rocket to sneak Python into the imagination of the programming public. As the open source and Python packaging ecosystems have matured, however, this strategy has not aged well, and like any booster, we must let it fall back to earth, lest it drag us back down with it.

New Python runtimes, new deployment targets, and new developer audiences all present tremendous opportunities for the Python community to soar ever higher.

But to do it, we need a newer, leaner, unburdened “kernel” Python. We need to dump the whole standard library out on the floor, adding back only the smallest bits that we need, so that we can tell what is truly necessary and what’s just nice to have.

I hope I’ve convinced at least a few of you that we need a kernel Python.

Now: who wants to write the PEP?

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Jean-Paul Calderone, Donald Stufft, Alex Gaynor, Amber Brown, Ian Cordasco, Jonathan Lange, Augie Fackler, Hynek Schlawack, Pete Fein, Mark Williams, Tom Most, Jeremy Thurgood, and Aaron Gallagher for feedback and corrections on earlier drafts of this post. Any errors of course remain my own.